Ecotoxicological impacts associated with the interplay between micro(nano)plastics and pesticides in aquatic and terrestrial environments

Microplastics (size 1 μm–5 mm) and nanoplastics (size 1–1000 nm), commonly referred to as micro(nano)plastics (MNPs), are ubiquitously present in aquatic and terrestrial environments, where they imminently interact with persistent organic pollutants, such as pesticides, inducing adverse toxicological effects in exposed organisms. MNPs interact with pesticides through adsorption and desorption processes, which require additional consideration due to the prospective role this nexus plays in changing the environmental transportation, fate, bioavailability, and ecotoxicity of both plastic particles and pesticides. Therefore, this review summarizes studies on the adsorption of pesticides on MNPs and factors affecting that adsorption process, including MNP properties (particle size, surface area, shape, dose), characteristics of pesticides (ionic properties, hydrophobicity), and environmental factors (temperature, pH, ionic strength). Furthermore, the bioaccumulation and associated combined toxicological impacts of pesticides and MNPs in freshwater, marine water, and terrestrial organisms are highlighted. Reviewed studies revealed that MNPs and pesticides undergo bioaccumulation in aquatic and terrestrial organisms and can cause multifaceted impacts, including growth and reproduction impairments, oxidative stress, altered genetic and enzymatic responses, metabolism abnormalities, multigenerational effects, histopathological modifications, neurotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity, among others. Last but not least, research gaps and future perspectives for pesticide and MNP interactions and their interconnected ecological implications are offered.