Placebo and nocebo effects in sport

Placebo and nocebo effects can significantly influence sport performance. In the past two decades, research has identified various neurobiological mechanisms of its response and how an athlete’s expectation and previous experiences, can alter the effectiveness of various treatments, such as medications, nutritional ergogenic aids, and altitude training. Importantly, this research has highlighted how physiologists can harness knowledge of placebo and nocebo effects to maximise an athlete’s performance during competition and training. In this paper, I briefly review evidence for the magnitude of placebo and nocebo effects on sport performance, before providing a description of the mechanisms in which they can be induced. To help athletes perform at their highest level, I also highlight the ways in which physiologists can maximise placebo effects and minimise nocebo effects and propose future research directions to provide greater understanding of these putative phenomena on sport performance.